Dr Inna Rudolf outlines the contestations surrounding debates on the PMF’s integration with Iraq’s formal state apparatus, including factional differences, ideological roots, and transnational alliances.

South Sudan's civil war has left rebels without arms or foreign backers, and its 2018 peace deal in tatters. Joshua Craze argues that the Nuer white armies — democratic, community-rooted militias — offer a more durable foundation for peace than the internationally brokered processes that enriched Juba's elite.